Properly naming organisms is often a tricky endeavour. While Linnean nomenclature has the virtue of universality, its reliance on latin and classical greek, and the complex rules by which the roots are combined, often make difficult the creation of appropriate and pleasing names.
Classification
Linnaean taxonomy
In his original work, in the XVIII century, Linnaeus classified life on Earth in a hierarchy with eight ranks: from the largest to the smallest, the kingdom (regnum), the phylum (also called division), the class (classis), the order (ordo), the family (familia), the genus and the species. A ninth (somewhat informal) rank, the domain, was added in the XX century above the kingdom. According to the modern taxonomy, humans belong to the domain Eukarya, the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa (animals), the phylum Chordata, the class Mammalia (mammals), the order Primates, the family Hominidae, the genus Homo and the species Homo sapiens.
As the complexity of classification increased further, in the XIX and XX century, more and more ranks were added, furtherly refining the process - first adding prefixes such as super-, sub-, infra-, and then with entirely new names. The complete chain becomes domain/superkingdom - kingdom - subkingdom - infrakingdom/branch - superphylum/superdivision - phylum/division - subphylum - infraphylum - microphylum - superclass - class - subclass - infraclass - parvoclass - legion - cohort - magnorder - superorder - order - suborder - infraorder - parvorder - superfamily - family - subfamily - supertribe - tribe - subtribe - genus - subgenus - section - series - superspecies - species - subspecies - infraspecies - variety - form.
Here is the complete classification of four example lifeform: humans, fruit flies, sunflowers and the bacterium E. coli (note that different authors can disagree about the details).
| Domain | Eukarya | Eukarya | Eukarya | Eubacteria |
| Kingdom | Metazoa | Metazoa | Plantae | - |
| Subkingdom | Eumetazoa | Eumetazoa | Embryophyta | |
| Infrakingdom | Deuterostomia | Protostomia | Tracheophyta | |
| Superphylum | Ecdysozoa | Spermatophyta | ||
| Phylum | Chordata | Arthropoda | Angiospermae | Proteobacteria |
| Subphylum | Vertebrata | Pancrustacea | ||
| Infraphylum | Gnathostomata | Hexapoda | ||
| Microphylum | Osteichthyes | |||
| Superclass | Tetrapoda | |||
| Class | Mammalia | Insecta | Eudicotiledonae | Gammaproteobacteria |
| Subclass | Theria | Pterygota | ||
| Infraclass | Holotheria | Neoptera | ||
| Parvoclass | Trechnotheria | Antliophora | ||
| Legion | Cladotheria | |||
| Cohort | Placentalia | |||
| Magnorder | Euarchontoglires | (Asterida) | ||
| Superorder | Euarchonta | Amphiesmenoptera | (Euasterida II) | |
| Order | Primates | Diptera | Asterales | Enterobacteriales |
| Suborder | Haplorrhini | Brachycera | ||
| Infraorder | Simiiformes | Schizophora | ||
| Parvorder | Catarrhini | Acalyptratae | ||
| Superfamily | Hominoidea | Ephydroidea | ||
| Family | Hominidae | Drosophilidae | Asteraceae | Enterobacteriaceae |
| Subfamily | Homininae | Drosophilinae | ||
| Supertribe | Drosophiliti | |||
| Tribe | Hominini | Drosophilini | Heliantheae | |
| Subtribe | Hominina | Drosophilina | ||
| Genus | Homo | Drosophila | Helianthus | Escherichia |
| Subgenus | D. (Sophophora) | |||
| Section | ||||
| Series | ||||
| Superspecies | ||||
| Species | H. sapiens | D. melanogaster | H. annuus | E. coli |
| Subspecies | H. s. sapiens | |||
| "Human" | "Fruit fly" | "Sunflower" |
Clade names
Also see: Phylogeny
Also see: PhyloCode, art. 10 and art. 11
The name of each category (taxon, plural form taxa) is obtained from a Latin or Greek word (e.g. Plantae = "plants") or from two or more words combined, either both Greek or both Latin (e.g. Tetrapoda = "four feet"). Even when the words are etymologically greek, they obey the rules of latin grammar, and they're always plural. Genera and species are treated according to special rules (see below). Often, the rank of degree higher than the genus has a particular ending, which can be found in this table:
| Bacteria | Algae | Plants | Fungi | Animals | |
| Phylum | -(bacter)ia | -phyta | -phyta | -mycota | |
| Subphylum | -phytina |
-phytina |
-mycotina | ||
| Class | -(bacter)ia | -phyceae | -opsida | -mycetes | -zoa (rare) |
| Subclass | -idae | -phycidae | -idae | -mycetidae | |
| Superorder | -anae | -anae | -anae | ||
| Order | -(bacter)iales | -ales | -ales | -ales | -aria, -zoa, -idea |
| Suborder | -ineae | -ineae | -ineae | -ineae | |
| Infraorder | -aria | -aria | -aria | ||
| Superfamily | -acea | -acea | -acea | -oidea | |
| Family | -(bacter)iaceae | -aceae | -aceae | -aceae | -idae |
| Subfamily | -oidae | -oidae | -oidae | -oidae | -inae |
| Tribe | -eae | -eae | -eae | -eae | -ini |
| Subtribe | -inae | -inae | -inae | -inae | -ina |
Some of them are not always used. Sometimes, taxa names are formed from a particular genus (eponymus genus), for example the tribe Heliantheae from Helianthus. The root used in the latine genitive of the genus: since the genitive on Homo is Hominis, the family to which humans belong is called Hominidae rather than Homidae. However, in the vast majority of cases the use of genitive does not make a difference and can be ignored. Usually, any clade name except for genera and species are not italicized, though PhyloCode specifies they should.
Today, with modern cladistics, the ranks do not exist anymore, as clades can nest inside other clades that traditionally have the same rank (e.g. "Class" Aves into "Class" Sauropsida), or even in clades that traditionally have a lower rank (e.g. "Class" Aves into "Order" Saurischia). Because of this, most new clade names are not formed with special endings anymore. Since the taxonomic rank has been abandoned, monotypic taxa (those that include only one sub-category) should be avoided: if Cephalotaceae contains only Cephalotus, which contains only C. follicularis, this last one is the only name that should be kept, as the others are superfluous.
There still are some cases were special particles are employed: PhyloCode suggests the prefix "Pan-" for total groups (clades that include a living clade and every organism closer to it than to any other living clade), for example Pan-Aves or Pan-Insecta; more generically, "Pan-", "Holo-", "-formes" and "-morpha" make the base group more inclusive, while "Eo-", "Eu-", "Neo-" and "Proto-" make it more specific; "Pseudo-" and "Para-" would be used for similar, but entirely distinct groups. "Apo-" would be used for groups that exhibit a derived trait, for example if Spermatophyta plants are characterized by seeds, "Apo-Spermatophyta" would be the widest clade to include plants with seeds.
In some entries, any name of a clade is accompanied by the surname of the author who established it and the year of establishment: for example, "Mammalia (Linnaeus, 1758)" or "Amniota (Haeckel, 1866)".
Binomial nomenclature
The heart of both Linnaean taxonomy and modern phylogeny is the binomen (also called "binomial name" or "scientific name"): the double name that identifies a species. It always include both the genus and the proper species (and sometimes the subgenus, while superspecies are written in the same way as a normal species). They obey special rules different from the higher-ranking taxa names:
- They always must be written italicized, while the others don't (except according to PhyloCode).
- Genus and subgenus are always capitalized, just like the other names, while species and subspecies cannot ever be capitalized.
- Species and subspecies can NOT ever be written alone: it's either Homo sapiens or H. sapiens, but never sapiens alone.
The subspecies can be written after the species, obeying the same rules: it's Homo sapiens idaltu or H. sapiens idaltu or H. s. idaltu, but never Homo idaltu or idaltu alone. The subgenus, finally, in inserted between genus and species (if there is one), among parenthesis: for example, Bos (Bos) taurus. Diversely from the genus, even if it exists it can be ignored, writing only genus and species (Bos taurus).
Botanical varieties are written like species, but introduced by "variety" or "var." e.g. Escobaria vivipara var. deserti.
| Domain-Subtribe | Genus | (Subgenus) | superspecies-form | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Is capitalized? | Yes | Yes | Yes | No |
| Is italicized? | Only in PhyloCode | Yes | Yes | Yes |
| Can be written alone? | Yes | Yes | No | No |
| Can it be ignored? | Yes | No | Yes | Yes |
As with higher-rank names, binomina can be accompanied by the name of the author and the date of their establishment. If the species was then moved to another genus, name and date are between parentheses, otherwise they're not. For example, "Patella vulgata Linnaeus, 1758", but "Passer domesticus (Linnaeus, 1758)" as it was originally Fringilla domestica. If only the genus is identified, of course name and date must refer to it: "Passer Brisson, 1760". In botany, the date is ignored and the name is shortened to its first initial.
Summary of possible forms to write a species:
- Genus species
- G. species
- Genus species subspecies
- G. species subspecies
- G. s. subspecies
- Genus (Subgenus) species
- Genus (S.) species
- G. (S.) species
- Genus (Subgenus) species subspecies
- G. (Subgenus) species subspecies
- G. (S.) species subspecies
- G. (S.) s. subspecies
Etymology
Traditionally, the roots used in genera and species names are latin or classical greek words; it's common that, while the genus is more specific, the species name is a generic latin adjective, such as communis (common), silvestris (wild), domesticus (domestic), borealis (northern), etc. This is not a rule, however. It's recommended that the literal meaning of the binomen is a description of the organism, but in fact any name is acceptable. It's usually recommended to avoid mixing both latin and greek roots in the same genus or species (nomen hybridum), though this is not an actual rule.
Recently, an habit has been born to use other languages in taxonomic terms: for example, Mei long is a chinese expression that means "sleeping dragon"; for chinese dinosaurs, the root long (="dragon") has all but replaced the greek root saurus (="lizard"). Shuvuuia comes from Mongolian, Balaur bondoc from Romanian; in many cases, latin endings are added, such as the -ia in Shuvuuia, but this doesn't always happen.
Often, one of the roots identifies the place of discoveries: for example, Bakonydraco, the "dragon of the Bakony Mountains". There is no specific rule concerning geographic places, except for euphony (the name should be fluid and pleasant); sometimes, the geographic origin is used as species, with the name of the place turned into a latin adjective with a suffix such as "-anus", "-icus" or "-ensis", for example Castor canadensis.
Another common choice for the species is the surname of a person, as in Apatosaurus louisae, after Louise Carnegie; in this case, a suffix such as "-i", "-ii" or "-ia" is added at the end, unless the surname ends with an "a", which is replaced by "-ae". The suffix "-ae" should be used for feminine names, and avoided for masculine ones.
Grammar
Whatever the etymology of the roots is, the binomen follows the rules of latin grammar. As detailed here, the names should use only the letters in the english alphabet (abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz) and no one else; moreover, it should be easily pronounceable, contain at least a vowel in each syllable and not contain long strings of consonants (though there are accepted names that violate this rule, such as Piatnitzkysaurus and Futalognkosaurus).
In the latin language, adjectives have a grammatical gender too, and they must have the same gender as the name they accompany. The basic form given by vocabularies is the masculine form, usually ending in "-us" or "-is"; as a rule of thumb, adjectives that end in "-us" become "-a" when feminine, and "-um" when neuter; those who end in "-is" stay "-is" when feminine and become "-e" when neuter; those who end in "-er" become "-ra" when feminin and "-rum" when neuter. While there are several exception, this rule holds true in most cases. For this reason, Linnaeus' Fringilla domestica could not become Passer domestica, but rather Passer domesticus, as "passer" is a masculine word.
List of words
NOTE: the words given here are from two languages - greek and latin. They can be distinguished by the fact that greek words come with their transliteration in greek letters, for example "arctos (ἄρκτος)", while latin words are isolated, for example "ursus".
Organisms
| Word | Translation | Example |
| alga, seaweed | phycos (φῦκος) | Fucus |
| amphibian, crawling animal | herpeton (ἑρπετόν) | Greererpeton ("Greer's amphibian") |
| animal | zoon (ζῷον) | Diplozoon ("double animal") |
| ant | formica, myrmex (μύρμηξ) | Myrmecocystus ("bag-ant") |
| ape | pithecos (πίθηκος) | Australopithecus ("southern ape") |
| bear | arctos (ἄρκτος), ursus | Arctodus ("bear tooth"), Ursus |
| beast, wild animal | therion/thero/therium (θηρίον) | Megatherium ("great beast") |
| bee | apis | Apis |
| bird | avis, ornis/ornitho (ὄρνις) | Ichthyornis ("fish-bird"), Aves |
| camel | camelos (κάμηλος) | Camelus |
| cat | catus, felis | Felis catus |
| cattle, ox | boos, bous, bys (βοῦς) | Buphagus ("ox eater") |
| crab | cancer, eryon (ἐρυον) | Cancer, Eryon |
| crayfish | cammaros (κάμμαρος) | Cambaridae |
| crocodile | champsa (χαμρσα), suchos (σοῦχος) |
Deinosuchus ("terrible crocodile") |
| deer | elaphos (έλάφος) | Boselaphus ("ox-deer") |
| dog | canis, cyon/cyno (κυον) | Canis, Cynodictis ("dog marten") |
| dragon | draco, dracon (δρακον) | Thalassiodracon ("sea dragon") |
| eagle | aetos (αετός) | Haliaeetus ("sea eagle") |
| fish | ichthys (ἰχθύς), piscis | Saurichthys ("lizard fish") |
| frog, toad | batrachos (βάτραχος) | Palaeobatrachus ("ancient frog") |
| goat | tragos (τράγος) | Taurotragus ("bull goat") |
| hare | lepus | Lepus |
| hedgehog | echinos (ἐχῖνος) | Echinodermata ("hedgehog skin") |
| horse | equus, hippos (ἵππος) | Equus, Archaeohippus ("old horse") |
| human | anthropos (ἄνθρωπος), homo | Pithecanthropus ("ape man") |
| leech | bdella (βδέλλα) | Tyrannobdella ("tyrant leech") |
| lizard | saura/saurus (σαύρα) | Dinosauria ("terrible lizards") |
| oak | drys/dryo- (δρυς) | Dryosaurus ("oak lizard") |
| oyster, shellfish | ostreon (ὄστρεον) | Ostrea |
| monkey | pithecos (πίθηκος) | Australopithecus ("southern ape") |
| mouse | mus, mys (μῦς) | Mus, Geomys ("ground mouse") |
| parrot | psittacos (ψιττακος) | Psittacosaurus ("parrot lizard") |
| plant | phyton (φυτόν) | Chlorophyta ("green plants") |
| reed | kalamos (καλαμος) | Calamus |
| reptile, crawling animal | herpeton (ἑρπετόν) | Herpetoichthys ("reptile fish") |
| sheep | ovis | Ovis |
| snake | ophis (ὄφις) | Gigantophis ("giant snake") |
| spider | arachne (ἀράχνη) | Arachnida |
| squid | teuthis (τευθις) | Architeuthis ("ruling squid") |
| tadpole | gyrinos (γυρῖνος) | Proterogyrinus ("earlier tadpole") |
| turtle, tortoise | chelone (χελώνη), emys (ἐμύς) | Odontochelys ("toothed turtle") |
| wasp | sphex (σφήξ) | Sphecomyrma ("wasp-ant") |
| wolf | lycos (λυκος) | Lycaenops ("wolf face") |
| worm | helminthe (ἕλμινς, ἑλμινθ-) | Platyhelminthes ("flat worms") |
Environments
| aquatic | aquaticus | Hyemoschus aquaticus |
| beach, coast, shore | aigialos (αἰγιαλός) | Aigialosaurus ("shore lizard") |
| cave-dweller | spelaeus, troglodytes | Ursus spelaeus |
| climber | scandens | Scandentia |
| cold | psychros (ψυχρός) | Psychroteuthis ("cold squid") |
| depth | bathos (βάθος) | Bathydraco ("depth dragon") |
| domestic | domesticus | Passer domesticus |
| dweller, inhabitant | cola/colus | Arvicola ("country dweller") |
| forest, woodland | hyle (ὕλη) | Hylonomus ("forest dweller") |
| garden(dwelling) | hortensis, pratensis | Poa pratensis |
| lake | lacus, limne (λίμνη) | Limnonectes ("lake swimmer") |
| land | geo (γαῖα, γῆ) | Geochelone ("land tortoise") |
| marine | halo/hali (ἅλς) | Halisaurus ("marine lizard") |
| mountain | oros/oreos (ὄρος) | Oreopithecus ("mountain ape") |
| mountain(dwelling) | montanus | Alsodes montanus |
| ocean | oceanos (ὠκεανός) | Oceanodroma ("ocean runner") |
| open sea | pelagos (πέλαγος), thalassa (θάλασσα) | Thalassodromeus ("sea runner") |
| river | potamos (ποταμός) | Hippopotamus ("river horse") |
| salt | halo/hali (ἅλς) | Halobacterium ("salt bacterium") |
| sand | ammos (ἄμμος), psammos (ψάμμος) | Ammophila ("sand lover") |
| spring | vernalis | Adonis vernalis |
| swamp, marsh | elos (έλος), telmatos (τελματος) | Telmatosaurus ("marsh lizard") |
| swamp(dwelling) | palustris | Calla palustris |
| water | hydro (ὕδωρ, ὑδρο-) | Hydrometra ("water measurer") |
| wild, rural | agrestis, arvensis, silvestris | Alauda arvensis |
Bodyparts
| anus | proctos (πρωκτός) | Cryptoprocta ("hidden anus") |
| arm | brachion (βραχίων), cheir (χείρ) | Brachiosaurus ("arm lizard") |
| back | dorsum, noton (νῶτον) | Platynota ("flat back") |
| beak | rhamphos (ράμφος) | Rhamphorhynchus ("beaked snout") |
| berry(bearing) | baccatus | Conus baccatus |
| bladder, sac | cyste (κύστη) | Cystophora ("bladder bearer") |
| blood | haema/hema (αἷμα) | Haematopus ("bloody feet") |
| bone | osteon (ὀστέον) | Osteoglossum ("bony tongue") |
| branch, bough | dendron (δένδρον), clados (κλάδος) | Dendrobates ("branch walker") |
| Cladocera ("branched horns") | ||
| cartilage | chondros (χόνδρος) | Chondrichthyes ("cartilaginous fishes") |
| claw | onychos/onyx/nychus (ὄνυχος) | Onychodus ("claw-tooth") |
| ear | auris, oto (ὠτο) | Microtus ("small ear") |
| egg | oon (ᾠόν) | Oomycota ("egg fungi") |
| eye | oculus, ophthalmos/opto (ὀφθαλμός) | Ophthalmosaurus ("eye lizard") |
| face, aspect | ops/opsis (ὄψ, ὄψις) | Triceratops ("three-horned face") |
| feather | penna, pteron (πτερόν) | Hieraaetus pennatus |
| feather (soft), down | pluma, ptilon (πτίλον) | Thaumaptilon ("wonderful soft feather") |
| fin | pteron/pterygo (πτερόν) | Stenopterygius ("strong fin") |
| finger, toe | dactylos (δάκτυλος) | Pterodactylus ("winged finger") |
| flat appendage | pteron/pterygo (πτερόν) | Pterygotus ("with flat appendages") |
| flower | anthos (ανθος), flos/flora | Anthozoa ("flower animals") |
| foot | pes/pedis, pod/pous/pus (ποῦς, ποδ-) | Eupodophis ("snake with good feet") |
| fruit | carpos (καρπός) | Carpolestes ("fruit thief") |
| gill | branchia (βράγχια) | Branchiosaurus ("gill lizard") |
| gland | aden (ἀδήν) | Adenomere ("part of a gland") |
| hair | thrix/thrich (θρίξ, τριχ-), pilus | Trichoptera ("hairy wings") |
| hand | cheir (χείρ) | Deinocheirus ("terrible hand") |
| head | cephale/cephalo (κεφαλή), ceps | Cephalopoda ("head-feet") |
| M. tenuiceps ("thin head") | ||
| heart | cardia (καρδίᾱ) | Acanthocardia ("thorny heart") |
| hind leg | scelis/skelis (σκελίς) | Limnoscelis ("lake hind leg") |
| horn | ceras/ceros (κέρας), cornus | Ceratotherium ("horned beast") |
| jaw | gnathos (γνάθος) | Gnathostomata ("jawed mouths") |
| joint, articulation | arthron (ἄρθρον) | Arthropoda ("jointed legs") |
| kernel, nucleus | caryon (κάρυον) | Eukaryota ("good nucleus") |
| kidney | nephros (νεφρός) | Nephrozoa ("animals with kidneys") |
| leaf | folium, phyllon (φύλλον) | Sphenophyllum ("wedge-shaped leaves") |
| leg, shin | cneme (κνήμη) | Bradycneme ("slow leg") |
| meat, flesh | carnis/carno, sarx (σάρξ) | Sarcopterygii ("fleshy fins") |
| membrane, veil, thin skin | hymen (ὑμήν) | Hymenoptera ("membranous wings") |
| mouth | os/oris, stoma (στόμα) | Cyclostomata ("circular mouths") |
| muscle | myo/mys (μῦς) | |
| nerve | neuron (νεῦρον) | Meganeura ("large nerves") |
| nose | rhis/rhino (ῥις, ῥινο-) | Rhinoceros ("horned nose") |
| nut | caryon (κάρυον) | |
| plate | plax/placo (πλάξ) | Placodermi ("plated skin") |
| pulp, tissue layer | stroma (στρώμα) | Stromatolite ("stratum rock") |
| root | rhiza (ῥίζα) | Zygorhiza ("yoke-root") |
| scale, crust | lepis (λεπίς), pholis | Goniopholis ("angular scales") |
| seed | sperma (σπέρμα) | Gymnospermae ("naked seeds") |
| side, flank | latus, pleuro (πλευρό), psoa (ψόα) | Pleuronectes ("side swimmer") |
| skin | cutis, derma (δέρμα) | Cerastoderma ("horned skin") |
| snout, muzzle, beak | rhynchos (ῥύγχος), rostrum | Metriorhynchus ("moderate snout") |
| stem, stalk | caulos (καυλός), stauros (σταυρός) | G. acaulis ("stemless") |
| Staurozoa ("stalked animals") | ||
| stomach, abdomen | gaster/gastro (γαστήρ) | Gastropoda ("abdomen-foot") |
| tail | cauda, ourus/oura (οὐρά) | Acanthurus ("spiny tail") |
| tendon | neuron (νεῦρον) | |
| tongue | glossis/glottis (γλωσσίς, γλωττίς) | Bolitoglossa ("throwing tongue") |
| tooth | odon/odonto/odus (ὀδών, ὀδούς) | C. megalodon ("large tooth") |
| vertebra | spondylos (σπονδυλος) | Streptospondylus ("reversed vertebra") |
| wing | pteron/pterygo (πτερόν) | Archaeopteryx ("ancient wing") |
| womb | delphis (δελφυς) | Didelphis ("two wombs") |
| wood | xylon (ξύλον) | Asteroxylon ("star-shaped wood") |
| wool, woolly | erion (ἔριον) | Eriophorum ("wool-bearing") |
Colours
| amber | electron (ἤλεκτρον) | |
| azure | caeruleus, cyanos (κυανός) | |
| banded, striped | fasciatus, lineatus, striatus | Myrmecobius fasciatus |
| black | mauros (μαῦρος), melas/melan- (μέλας) | A. melanoleuca ("black-and-white") |
| blue | caeruleus | Passiflora caerulea |
| blue-green | cyanos (κυανός), glaucos (γλαυκός) | Cyanobacteria ("blue-green bacteria") |
| blue-grey | lividus | Calliphora livida |
| brown (dark) | fuscus | Pelobates fuscus |
| colour | chroma (χρῶμα) | Chromalveolata ("coloured alveoli") |
| coloured | pictus | Lycaon pictus |
| dark | atrus, fuscus, obscurus, phaeos (φαιός) | Phaeophyceae ("dark algae") |
| gold, golden | aureus, flavus, chrysos (χρυσός) | Potos flavus |
| green | chloros (χλωρός), prasinos (πράσινος), viridis | Prasinohaema ("green blood") |
| green (pale) | chloros (χλωρός) | Chlorophyta ("green plants") |
| grey | glaucos (γλαυκός), phaeos (φαιός) | Glaucopsyche ("grey-bluish butterfly") |
| grey (pale) | canus | |
| ivory | eburneus | Conus eburneus |
| multi-coloured | variegatus, versicolor | Calotes versicolor |
| pale | glaucos (γλαυκός) | |
| pigment, ink | melas/melan- (μέλας) | |
| pink | rhodon (ῥόδον) | Rhodophyta ("red-pink plants") |
| purple | purpureus | Lablab purpureus |
| red | erythron (ἐρυθρός), rhodon (ῥόδον), ruber | Erythrocebus ("red monkey") |
| reddish | rufus | Macropus rufus |
| silver | argentatus | Larus argentatus |
| spotted, pointed | maculatus, punctatus | |
| tawny | fulvus | Eulemur fulvus |
| transparent | diaphanes (διαφανής), hyalinos (ὑάλινος) pellucidus | Hyalinobatrachium ("glass frog") |
| white | albus, leucos (λευκός) | Leucanthemum ("white flower") |
| whitish/greyish | canescens | Tiquilia canescens |
| yellow (bright) | flavus, luteus | Calochortus luteus |
| yellow | chitrinos (κίτρινος), crocos (κρόκος), xanthos (ξανθός) | Crocus, P. xanthopus ("yellow foot") |
Shapes
| angle, angular | gonia (γωνία) | Gonioceras ("angular horn") |
| branching, treelike | arborescens | Aloe arborescens |
| circle, round | cyclos (κύκλος) | Cyclomedusa ("circular jellyfish") |
| creeping, crawling | repens/reptans | Ranunculus repens |
| crested, ridged | carinatus, cristatus | Proteles cristata |
| crowned | coronatus | Stephanoaetus coronatus |
| curved, bent | cyrtos (κυρτός), campylos (καμρυλος) | Campylobacter ("bent bacterium") |
| curved upwards | repandus | Cereus repandus |
| disc | discos (δίσκος) | Discoplax ("disc-shaped plate") |
| divided | partitus | Stegastes partitus |
| downy, velvety | pubescens | Bangiomorpha pubescens |
| dwarf | nanos (νᾶνος), nanus, pumilio | Oophaga pumilio |
| fat | pinguis | Pinguinus |
| feathered | pennatus | Distoechurus pennatus |
| flat and wide | platys (πλατύς) | Platyrrhini ("flat noses") |
| fused | ankylos (ἀγκύλος) | Ankylosaurus ("fused lizard") |
| graceful | lepton (λεπτόν) | Leptodactylus ("graceful fingers") |
| high, tall | aepy/epi- (αἰπύς, αἰπός), hypsos (ὕψος) | Aepycamelus ("high camel") |
| Hypsignathus ("tall jaw") | ||
| higher | elatior | Primula elatior |
| hollow, cavity | antron (ἄντρον), coelo/coilo (κοιλος) | Coelophysis ("hollow body/form") |
| huge, enormous | gigas/giganto- (γίγας), immensus | Gigantopithecus ("giant ape") |
| large | macros (μακρός), megas/megalo- (μέγας) | Megalosaurus ("large lizard") |
| larger | maior/major | Parus major |
| largest | maximus, megistos (μεγιστος) | Elephas maximus |
| Megistotherium ("largest beast") | ||
| light, slim | lepton (λεπτόν), tenuis | Leptodactylus ("slim fingers") |
| lump, knot | chondros (χόνδρος), nodo/nodus | Nodosaurus ("lumpy lizard") |
| long, elongated | dolichos (δόλιχος) | Dolichopodidae ("long feet") |
| maned, bearded | iubatus/jubatus | C. t. albojubatus ("white-bearded") |
| naked | gymnos (γυμνόσ), psilos (ψιλός) | E. gymnura ("naked tail") |
| narrow, slender | strictus, tenuis | Tellina tenuis |
| ray | actis/actino (ἀκτίς) | Actinopterygii ("fins with rays") |
| reversed, twisted | streptos (στρεπτος) | Streptomyces ("twisted fungus") |
| ribbed | costatus | Dickinsonia costata |
| right, straight | orthos (ὀρθός), strictus | Orthoceras ("straight horn") |
| rough, warty | verrucosus | Sus verrucosus |
| serrate, jagged | carcharos (καρχαρος), erosus | Carcharodon ("jagged tooth") |
| sharp, pointed | acutus, oxys (ὀξύς) | Oxycera ("sharp horns") |
| short | brachys (βραχύς), brevis | Brachyceratops ("short horned face") |
| small | micros (μικρόν), parvus | Micromys ("small mouse") |
| smaller | minor | Eudyptula minor |
| smallest | minimus | Chironectes minimus |
| smooth, hairless | glaber, leios/lios (λεῖος), psilos (ψιλός) | Liopleurodon ("smooth-sided teeth") |
| spiny, thorny | acantha (ακάνθα), echinos (ἐχῖνος) | Polacanthus ("many thorns") |
| spiral, helix | helix (ἕλιξ), strepsis (στρέψις) | T. strepsiceros ("spiral horn") |
| squat, stocky | pachys (παχύς) | |
| star | aster/astron (ἀστήρ, ἄστρον), stella | Astrochelys ("star tortoise") |
| swollen, knobby | tylos (τύλος) | Tylopoda ("swollen feet") |
| sword-shaped | ensatus | Dicamptodon ensatus |
| thick | crassus, hadros (ἁδρός), pachys (παχύς) | Pachyrhinosaurus ("thick-nosed lizard") |
| thin plate | elasmos (ελασμος) | Elasmosaurus ("lizard with thin plates") |
| triangular | triquetrus | Rhytidiadelphus triquetrus |
| tube, pipe | siphon (σίφων), solen (σωλήν) | Solenogastres ("tube-shaped stomach") |
| turning, rolled | strepsis (στρέψις) | T. strepsiceros ("spiral horn") |
| upright, vertical | erectus | Homo erectus |
| wide | crassus, eurys (εὐρύς), pachys (παχύς) | Eurypterus ("wide fin") |
| wide opening, chasm | chasma (χάσμα) | Chasmosaurus ("wide hole lizard") |
| woolly, hairy | erion (ἔριον), hirsutus, tomentosus, villosus | Chaetophractus villosus |
| wrinkly, folded | rhytis (ῥυτίς) | Rytiodus ("wrinkly tooth") |
Other features
| ancestor | avus, praecursor, progonos (πρόγονος) | Proganochelys ("ancestral turtle") |
| assassin | phoneus (φονεύς), sicarius | Hoplophoneus ("armoured assassin") |
| beautiful | calli/kalos (καλός), pulcher | Callipepla ("beautiful robe") |
| blind | caecus, typhlos (τυφλός) | Typhlops ("blind face") |
| broken | clastos (κλαστός) | Osteoclast ("bone-breaker") |
| common, domestic | communis, familiaris, vulgaris | Canis lupus familiaris |
| common, thick, frequent | criber, pycnos (πυκνός) | Pycnogonida ("thick knees") |
| deceptive | apate/apatelos (ἀπάτη/ἀπατηλός) | Apatosaurus ("deceptive lizard") |
| dry | xeros (ξηρός) | Xerophyta ("drought plant") |
| dull, blunt | amblys (ἀμβλύς) | Amblypygi ("blunt rump") |
| edible | edulis, esculentus | Boletus edulis |
| electric | electron (ἤλεκτρον) | Electrophorus ("electricity bearer") |
| farmed, seeded | sativus | Oryza sativa |
| fast, quick | tachys (ταχύς), velox/velocis | Tachybaptus ("quick diver") |
| fearsome, terrifying | deinos/dinos (δεινός) | Deinonychus ("terrible claw") |
| feeble, faint | amblys (ἀμβλύς) | |
| flexible | camptos (καμπτος) | Camptosaurus ("flexible lizard") |
| flying | volans | Draco volans |
| friend, lover | philos (φίλος) | Spermophilus ("seed lover") |
| graceful, elegant | elegans | Eudromia elegans |
| heavy | baros/barys (βαρύς), gravis, ponderosus | Barosaurus ("heavy lizard") |
| herbaceous, grasslike | oleraceus | Brassica oleracea |
| hunter | venator | Afrovenator ("African hunter") |
| medicinal | medicinalis, officinalis | Hirudo medicinalis |
| moist | hygros (ὑγρός) | Hygrocybe ("moist head") |
| pleasant, tempting | blandus | |
| poisonous | virosus | Amanita virosa |
| shining, bright | phaedros (φαιδρός) | |
| showy, conspicuous | speciosus | Sphecius speciosus |
| slow | bradys (βραδύς), tardus | Bradypus ("slow foot") |
| stilt-walking | grallator | Bathypterois grallator |
| strong, powerful, robust | dynamis (δύναμις), rhomaleon (ρομαλεον) | Rhomaleosaurus ("strong lizard") |
| sweet | dulcis, glycys (γλυκύς) | Glycyrrhiza ("sweet root") |
| swimmer, swimming | nectes (νήκτης), neustes (νευστός) | Peloneustes ("mud swimmer") |
| thief, robber | lestes (λῃστήσ), raptor | Ornitholestes ("bird robber") |
| Conchoraptor ("seashell thief") | ||
| ugly | cacos (κακός), foedus, turpis | Cacops ("ugly face") |
| unpleasant | aedes/aed- (ἀηδής) | Aedes |
| used to dye | tinctorius | Carthamus tinctorius |
| variable | poikilos (ποικίλος), variabilis | Poekilopleuron ("varied ribs") |
| weird, extraneous, different | xenos (ξένος) | Xenopus ("strange foot") |
| wise, learned | sapiens, sophos (σοφός) | Homo sapiens |
| wonderful, admirable | mirus | Ophiacodon mirus |
Objects
| armour | hoplos/oplia (οπλία) | Panoplosaurus ("entirely armoured lizard") |
| belt, band | cestos (κεστός), cestus, zone (ζώνη) | Cestoda |
| boat, canoe | scaphe (σκαφε) | Scaphognathus ("boat-shaped jaw") |
| bottle | ampulla | Ampullariidae |
| chalice, cup | ambux (ἄμβυξ) | |
| chamber | camara/camera (καμαρα) | Cameroceras ("chambered horn") |
| club, stick | bactron (βακτρον) | Bactrosaurus ("club lizard") |
| coal | anthrax/anthraco- (άνθραξ) | Anthracotherium ("coal beast") |
| container | ampulla, angeion/angion (ἀγγείον) | Angiospermae ("contained seeds") |
| fire | pyr/pyros (πυρ) | Pyrotherium ("fire beast") |
| gold | aurum, chrysos (χρυσός) | Chrysanthemum ("golden flower") |
| honey | mel/mellis | Mellivora ("honey eater") |
| knife, saber | smile (σμίλη) | Smilodon ("saber tooth") |
| milk | lac/lactis, galakta (γάλακτ-) | Polygala ("abundant milk") |
| mud, clay | pelon (πελον) | Pelobates ("mud walker") |
| net | dictyon (δικτυον) | Dictyoptera ("net wings") |
| oil | elaion (έλαιον), oleum | Elaiosome ("oily body") |
| rod, staff | rhabdos (ῥάβδος) | Rhabdodon ("rod tooth") |
| rope, string | nema/nematos (νῆμα) | Nematophyta ("string plants") |
| saw | pristis (πρίστις) | Pristiophorus ("saw-bearer") |
| shield | aspis/aspida (ασπίδα), scutum | Cephalaspis ("head shield") |
| shovel | lystron (λυστρον) | Lystrosaurus ("shovel lizard") |
| spear | ensis | Ensifera ("spear-bearer") |
| stone, rock | lithos (λίθος), petra (πέτρα) | Lithops ("stone-like") |
| sword | gladius, ensis, xiphos/xiphias (ξίφος) | Xiphias gladius ("sword") |
| tile, shell | ostracon (ὄστρακον) | Ostracoderma ("shell-skin") |
| vessel, duct | angeion/angion (ἀγγείον) | Angiopteris ("leaves with vessels") |
| wedge | sphen (σφήν) | Sphenodon ("wedge-shaped tooth") |
| wheel | cyclos (κύκλος) | Cyclostomata |
| yoke | zygon (ζυγόν) | Zygorhiza ("yoke rooth") |
Geography
| African | africanus/africana | Loxodonta africana |
| American | americanus/americana | Ursus americanus |
| Asian | asiaticus | Charadrius asiaticus |
| Australian | novaehollandiae | Dromaius novaehollandiae |
| Chinese | sinensis | Camellia sinensis |
| Eastern | orientalis | Cynops orientalis |
| European | europaeus | Erinaceus europaeus |
| Indian | indicus | Tapirus indicus |
| Northern | borealis | Albertonykus borealis |
| Russian | sarmaticus | Ciconia sarmatica |
| Southern | australis, nothos/notos (νότος) | Australopithecus ("southern ape") |
| western | occidentalis | Sceloporus occidentalis |
Numbers
| 1 | monos (μονός), unus | Monodon ("one tooth") |
| 2 | bi-/bis, di (δι) | Diceros ("two horns") |
| 3 | tres/tria (τρία) | Trifolium ("three leaves") |
| 4 | tettares/tetra (τέτταρες, τετρα-), quattuor | Tetrapoda ("four feet") |
| 5 | penta (πέντα), quinque | Pentaceratops ("five-horned face") |
| 6 | hesa/hexa (ἕξα), sex | Hexapoda ("six feet") |
| 7 | hepta (ἑπτά), septem | Heptapteridae ("seven fins") |
| 8 | octa/octo (ὀκτα-, ὀκτω-) | Octopoda ("eight feet") |
| 9 | ennea (ἐννέα), novem | Enneapterygius ("nine fins") |
| 10 | deca (δέκα), decem | Decapoda ("ten feet") |
| 11 | endeca (ἕνδεκα), undecim | C. undecimpunctata ("eleven-spotted") |
| 12 | dodeca (δώδεκα), duodecim | Dodecatheon ("twelve gods") |
| 100 | centum, ekato (εκατό) | Centipede ("a hundred feet") |
| 1000 | chilia (χίλια), mille/milli- | Chilopoda ("a thousand feet") |
| both kinds, both sides | ambi, amphi (ἀμφί) | Amphibia ("life on both sides") |
| double, twofold | diplo (διπλός) | Diplodocus ("double beam") |
| first | protos (πρῶτος) | Protopterus ("first/primitive fin") |
| halved, divided in two | dicha (δίχα) | A. dichotoma ("cut in two") |
| in five parts | quinque- | |
| in four parts | quadri- | |
| second | deuteros (δεύτερος) | Deuerostomia ("mouth as second") |
| single, isolated | monos (μονός) | Trichomonas ("hairy single") |
| twice | dis (δίς) |
Other
| all, everyone | holon (ὅλον), universus | Holozoa ("all the animals") |
| all, entirely | pan/panto (πᾶν, παντός), cunctus | Pantopoda ("made entirely of feet") |
| ancient, old | archaeos (ἀρχαῖος), palaeos (παλιός) | Palaeotherium ("ancient beast") |
| apex, peak | acron (ἄκρον) | Acrocanthosaurus ("high-spined lizard") |
| behind | opisthe (οπισθή) | Opistobranchia ("gills behind") |
| break, crush | clao (κλάω) | Claosaurus ("broken lizard") |
| carry, bearer | fer, eso (οἰσέ[μεν]), phorus (φορέας) | Nicrophorus ("dead-carrier") |
| cold | cryos (κρυος) | Cryolophosaurus ("crested lizard of cold") |
| cut, incision | temnein/temno (τέμνειν) | Temnospondyli ("cut vertebrae") |
| Oxytoma ("sharp cut") | ||
| dawn, origin | eos (ἠώς) | Eoraptor ("dawn thief") |
| day | hemera (ημέρα) | Hemerocallis ("beautiful by day") |
| dead, corpse | necros (νεκρός) | Necropsittacus ("dead parrot") |
| destruction, consumption | lysis (λυσις) | |
| different, diverse | heteros (ἕτερος) | Heterodontosaurus ("different teeth lizard") |
| different, other | allos (ἄλλος) | Allosaurus ("different lizard") |
| eat, devour | phago (φάγο), voro | Borophagus ("gluttonous eater") |
| equal, similar | homeos/homo (ὅμοιος), iso- (ἴσος) | Homoptera ("equal wings") |
| end | telos (τέλος) | |
| far, distant | tele (τηλε) | |
| fear | phobia/phobos (φοβία, φόβος) | |
| few, little | oligos (ολιγος) | Oligochaeta ("few bristles") |
| flow, flux | rhea/rhoia (ῥοία) | |
| front | prose (πρόση) | Prosobranchia ("gills in the front") |
| heat, warmth | thermos (θερμός) | |
| hidden | cryptos (κρυπτός) | Cryptodira ("hidden neck") |
| home, house | eco/oikos (οἷκος) | |
| imitator | mimos (μῖμος) | Gallimimus ("chicken mimic") |
| life, living | bios (βίος), zoe (ζωή) | Amphibia ("life on both sides") |
| light | lux/lucis, phos (φῶς) | Photuris ("luminous tail") |
| many | poly (πολύς) | Polypodium ("many feet") |
| nature | physis (φύσις) | |
| new | neos (νέος) | Neocathartes ("new vulture") |
| new, recent | caino/ceno (καινός) | Cainotherium ("recent beast") |
| night | nyx/nycto (νύξ) | Icaronycteris ("nocturnal Icarus") |
| opposite, specular | enantios (ἐνάντιος) | Enantiornithes ("opposite birds") |
| part, portion | meros (μέρος) | |
| ruler, power | arche/arco- (ἀρχή) | Archosauria ("ruling lizards") |
| run, runner | dromos (δρόμος) | Dromaeosaurus ("running lizard") |
| similar to | mimos (μῖμος) | Gallimimus ("chicken mimic") |
| simple | haplos (ἁπλόος) | Haplocanthosaurus ("simple spined lizard") |
| size, measure | metron (μετρώ) | Dimetrodon ("teeth of two lengths") |
| soon, premature | praecox | Allium praecox |
| sprout, embryo | blastos (βλαστός) | |
| stench | bromos (βρῶμος), mephitis | Mephitis mephitis |
| Sun | helios (ἥλιος) | Heliozoa ("Sun-like animals") |
| surface | hedra (ἕδρα) | |
| thick, dense | dasys (δασύς) | Dasypus ("hairy feet") |
| thunder | bronte (βροντη) | Eubrontes ("true thunder") |
| true, real | verus | |
| united | zygos (ζυγός) | Zygoptera ("united wings") |
| wind | anemos (ἄνεμος) | Anemone ("[daughter] of the wind") |
| wonder, marvel, miracle | thauma (θαῦμα) | Thaumoctopus ("marvelous octopus") |
| wound, tear | drypto (δρύπτω) | Dryptosaurus ("tearing lizard") |
| wrong, false | nothos (νόθος), pseudo (ψευδής) | Nothosauroidea ("false lizards") |
Particles and appositions
| above, on, upon | epi (ἐπί), hyper (ὑπέρ), super/supra | Epidendrum ("upon trees") |
| again, backwards, upwards | ana (ἀνά) | Anableps ("glance upwards") |
| all, complete, entire | pan/panto (πᾶς, παν-, παντο-) | Pantopoda ("entirely of feet") |
| around | peri (περί) | Peripatus ("walking around") |
| away from, far from | apo (ἀπό), ab- | Apocynum ("away from dogs") |
| bad, unpleasant | caco- (κακός) | Cacomantis ("ill-boding prophet") |
| before | pro (πρό), pre/prae- | R. praecursor ("forerunner") |
| below | hypo (ὑπό), sub- | A. hypogaea ("underground") |
| beyond, on the other side | hyper (ὑπέρ), meta (μετά), trans- | Metazoa ("advanced animals") |
| entirely | holo/olo (ὅλο) | D. holocanthus ("entirely thorny") |
| good, well | eu- (εὖ) | Eusthenopteron ("good strong fin") |
| having, endowed with | -atus | Pulmonata ("with lungs, having lungs") |
| less | meion/mio (μείων), minus | Meiolania ("lesser roamer") |
| more | pleion/plio (πλείων), plus | Pliosaurus ("more lizard") |
| [name derived from a verb] | -osis (-ωσις) | |
| near, beside, almost | para (παρά), anchi (αγχι) | Anchiornis ("almost a bird") |
| no, no-, not | ou/u- (οὐ), non | |
| not, un-, lacking, without | a/an- (ἀ-/ἀν) | Anura ("without tail") |
| on the same side | cis- | |
| same, equal | equi-, iso- (ἴσος), homo/omo (ὅμο) | Homoptera ("equal wings") |
| similar to | -oides (-οιδες) | P. strigoides ("similar to an owl") |
| through | dia (διά) |
References
- PhyloCode (the international codex of phylogenetic nomenclature)
- List of Greek words with English derivatives (Wikipedia)
- List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names (Wikipedia)
- English-Latin dictionary
- English-Greek dictionary; English-ancient Greek dictionary
- Other lists of useful words
- Curiosities of Biological Nomenclature: a catalogue of wordplays and curious etymologies in taxonomy.